Data and contextual information for “Spanish American Fiction in the HathiTrust Digital Library,” a workset curated by José Eduardo González in collaboration with the HathiTrust Research Center with generous support from the Mellon Foundation.
View the Project on GitHub htrc/scwared-spanish-american-fiction
José Eduardo González
jgonzalez2@unl.edu
ORCID number: 0000-0002-8899-3021
Universidad de Nebraska-Lincoln
Spanish comprises only about 6.6% of the Hathitrust library contents1 and yet there are barriers that make the Hathitrust fiction in this language difficult to locate and use for literary analysis. While the volumes are identified by country of publication, they need to be differentiated into categories useful for literature scholars. This is, of course, true for all the volumes in the library, regardless of the language in which they are written, but the present project’s aim is to create organized lists of the works available for scholars interested in Spanish-language literature, specifically Spanish American fiction. With that objective in mind, I have built several worksets, some of them focusing on literary periods and genres frequently studied by scholars of Spanish American literature and others simply as a first attempt to locate, and organize around the concept of national literatures, volumes of fiction published throughout the region. In this document I describe the reasons for creating different worksets, in other words, what makes them unique in relation to literature in other languages (especially English, which is the language that has dominated the study of literature from a digital humanities perspective), and the historico-cultural relationships among some of the worksets.
One reason for studying these worksets is that often literary styles or genres in South American literature do not follow the traditional distinctions made in Anglo-European literary history. If we look at recent DH investigations of genres (or subgenres), they have logically focused on identifying patterns occurring in the English speaking literary market such as detective fiction, the Gothic novel, speculative fiction and so on.2 While many examples of these literary forms may be found in Spanish American literature, the genres that have traditionally been considered important for the changes in the literary history of the region are less formulaic and more closely linked to national and historical events, or to regional social developments. Other standard terms from Anglo-European studies such as “realist fiction” or “social novels” are too broad for the Latin-American context and, because we are dealing with many national histories and situations, they are frequently superseded by terms referring to specific social aspects or historical events important for the nations or subregions where the literary works are created. The training of any Latin Americanist necessarily includes studying the characteristics of the “Novel of the Mexican Revolution,” or the Colombian “Violencia” novel. Other subgenres cross boundaries such as the “Indigenista” novel practiced in South American countries possessing large populations of Native Americans, or, a more recent development, the “Narco-novel” or “Narco Narratives,” also important for the literary fields of more than one country.
For decades after obtaining independence, authors in Spanish American republics continued to follow the literary trends and movements in fashion in Spain. Modernismo was a turn-of-the-century movement devoted to a renovation of Spanish American letters whose members consciously set out to create a literature autonomous from the European literary field. It became one the most influential artistic periods in Spanish American literary history. Spanish American writers were able to develop a specific literary discourse, with a distinctive vocabulary and stylistic features that set them apart from the styles found in other datasets in this project. In other words, while the vocabulary associated with other Spanish American literary styles is based on content (topics), the main emphasis in the case of modernismo is presentation (style). Modernistas’ language is elegant and ornate, full of cultural allusions (e.g. mentions of art from ancient Greece). Their vocabulary is composed of neologisms, learned or obscure terms, Gallicisms, archaisms and words of Spanish-American origin. Because modernismo was the dominant writing style for over four decades and, unlike other forms of writing included here, it was followed and imitated in all Spanish American republics, a problem that has been part of the scholarship on modernismo from the beginning and continues, in many ways, today is the selection of writers to be included as part of this period. For example, authors who were initially classified as precursors to the movement or “pre-modernistas” by the first scholars to study the period seriously, were later included as full-fledged members. Or, in the case of the modernista novel, some scholars reduce the list of representative texts to around fifty, while another might increase it to over a hundred. Scholars employing this workset will probably have their own lists of authors or works that they consider part of the movement. While there were modernista followers in all Spanish American countries, the movement was especially influential in Mexico, Colombia, Peru and Argentina. Notable modernista fiction include Lucía Jerez (1885) by José Martí (Cuba, 1853-95), De sobremesa (After-Dinner Talk, 1896) by José Asunción Silva (Colombia, 1865-96), Ídolos rotos (Broken Idols, 1901) by Manuel Díaz Rodríguez (Venezuela, 1871-1927), La rosa muerta (Dead Rose, 1914) by Aurora Cáceres (Peru, 1877-1958) and La gloria de don Ramiro (The Glory of Don Ramiro, 1908) by Enrique Larreta (Argentina, 1875-1961). For the creation of this set I used two works that have tried to establish a canon for Modernista novels Aníbal González’s A Companion to Spanish American Modernismo and Alejandro Mejías-López’s PhD Dissertation, “La novela modernista hispanoamericana: definición y estudio de sus inicios.” Additionally, information about Modernismo followers in all Spanish American nations came from online searches and national literary histories.
This is a group of prose works that portrays events related to armed struggle that took place in Mexico from approximately 1910 to 1920. The conflict started as a revolt against the regime of Porfirio Díaz, who had been ruling Mexico, directly or indirectly, for thirty years. It devolved into a series of regional battles for power, which included some of the most famous Mexican historical figures (Villa, Zapata) who sometimes make an appearance in these narrations. These works tend to have a realistic style and sometimes are autobiographical or based on direct experience of the revolutionary events. The number of works included in this group varies from critic to critic, as many of the characteristics employed to identify them are imprecise or shared by other works of fiction. While these texts are initially referred to as “novels” of the Revolution, the texts designated as such include a diverse variety of writings such as biographies, memoirs and journalistic accounts. This genre is usually associated with the works of Mariano Azuela (1873-1952), such as Los de abajo (1915, The Underdogs), Los caciques (1917, The Bosses) and Las tribulaciones de una familia decente (1918, The Tribulations of a Decent Family). Other salient works in this group are El águila y la serpiente (The Eagle and the Serpent, 1928) by Martín Luis Guzmán (1887-1976) and Cartucho (1931) by Nellie Campobello (1900-1986). Among the books I consulted are Castro Leal’s classic anthology, La novela de la revolución mexicana. Mexico: Aguilar, 1969 and the most recent study of the genre, Danaé Torres de la Rosa’s Avatares editoriales de un género. However, I found the most complete list of novels of the revolution in John Rutheford’s An annotated bibliography of the novels of the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1917. Many of these novels have probably never been reprinted, which explains why out of 139 novels of the revolution listed by Rutheford, HathiTrust has 68 (48%).
This genre was born as a response to the exploitation of indigenous populations in Spanish America and has practitioners in many countries in the region, but especially in Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, Paraguay, and Bolivia. These are the countries included in this subset. The narrations portraying Native American cultures in Latin America are traditionally divided into two main tendencies . Indianista- literature was the work of authors writing around the mid-19th century and presented an idealized version of native inhabitants and a romantic attachment to their past. Classic examples of Indianista novels are Cumandá: o un drama entre salvajes (Cumanda or A Drama Between Savages, 1877) by Juan León Mera (Ecuador, 1832-1894) and Enriquillo (1879) by Manuel de Jesús Galván (Dominican Republic, 1834-1910). Indigenista works, for their part, focus on social protest and is interested in the contemporary rural Indian. Some of the most significant Spanish American novels are included in this tendency, including Los ríos profundos (Deep Rivers, 1958) by José María Arguedas (Peru, 1911-69), Balún-Canán (1957) by Rosario Castellanos (Mexico, 1925-74), Huasipungo (The Villagers, 1934) by Jorge Icaza (Ecuador, 1906-78) and El mundo es ancho y ajeno (Broad and Alien is the World, 1941) by Ciro Alegría (1909-67). For the list of Indianista novels, my main source was Concha Meléndez’s La novela indianista en Hispanoamérica (1832-1889). Compiling the list for indigenismo was complicated and several sources were consulted: David W. Foster, “Bibliografía del indigenismo hispanoamericano,” René Prieto, “The literature of Indigenismo,” and Julio Rodríguez-Luis, Hermeneútica y Praxis del Indigenismo, among others. I was looking for 102 indigenista/indianista novels and found 84 of them, or 82%.
This genre refers to the literature written about a long violent period in Colombian history. The name “La violencia” is a reference to the civil war that started in 1948 with the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán and involved armed groups that sided with either the Conservative or the Liberal parties. Most of the conflict took place in the countryside, sometimes pitting peasants against the military. In addition to the political parties, other actors that might appear in these accounts include the national army, the police and the Catholic Church. Most critics agree that regardless of the ideology of the authors these works tend to blame politicians for manipulating the situation and extending the conflict. Some scholars believe that only novels written between 1946-1965 should be accepted as part of the group, but others extend the period until later and include works by more recent works, like some of Gabriel García Marquez’s novels. While I have chosen to follow the latter approach, most of the scholarly resources on this genres focus on fictions from the 40s-60s period, making it difficult to detect new publications to include in the list after 1970. Significant works and authors in this genre include El Cristo de Espaldas (Backwards Christ, 1952) by Eduardo Caballero Calderón (1910-93), El día del odio (Day of Hatred, 1952) by José Osorio Lizarazo (1900-1964) and La mala hora (In Evil Hour, 1962) by Gabriel García Marquez (1927-2014). The initial list for this set was obtained from Lucila Inés Mena, “Bibliografía Anotada Sobre el Ciclo de la Violencia en la Literatura Colombiana” and Augusto Escobar Mesa, “Cronología y bibliografia de la novelística sobre la Violencia (1949-1967).” In this category I submitted 92 titles and 80 of them were found, which is 86%.
This period goes approximately from 1960 to around 1975 and represents a radical shift in the history of fiction in Latin America. In social terms, urban development increases in ways never seen before, with a large number of immigrants arriving from the countryside. New mass media brings the influence of the culture industry from the U.S. Politically, the 1959 Cuban Revolution brings worldwide attention to the region. The boom literature shares in the Utopian optimism of the times by creating many experimental works that enjoyed enormous commercial success throughout the region. For the first time, many of these authors were able to become professional writers. Some of the most successful contemporary authors (e.g., Nobel prize winners García Márquez and Mario Vargas Llosa) are considered members of this group. Being associated with the boom meant not only an increase in social capital for the authors recognized as boom writers but also, potentially, the economic success of their works. During the 1970s determining which writers belong to this group was a common topic of discussion among literary critics in Spanish America. While some critics treated the boom as an very exclusive club and tended to accept only five or six names, other critics expanded the list of members and made them more inclusive. As in other cases with these datasets I opted for the latter approach as it has the advantage of allowing scholars to use their own criteria for determining membership. Having said that, many scholars would probably still consider that many other works could be included. The divisiory line between the boom books and those who came before or after them (post-boom) has always been porous. I would like to notice that some of the works included in this set intersect with three of the other categories mentioned above (Mexican revolution, Indigenismo, “La violencia”). Excellent examples of boom literature are La casa verde (The Green House, 1966) by Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru, 1936-), La región más transparente (Where the Air is Clear, 1958) by Carlos Fuentes (Mexico, 1928-12), El obsceno pájaro de la noche (The Obscene Bird of the Night, 1970) by José Donoso (Chile, 1924-96) and Rayuela (Hopscotch, 1963) by Julio Cortázar (Argentina, 1914-84). Ángel Rama’s classic account of the boom phenomenon, “El boom en perspectiva” was the starting point for this set, but I used Randolph D. Pope’s introduction to the topic, “The Spanish American novel from 1950 to 1975.” For this group, the HathiTrust library had all the volumes (a total of 65) I included in the set.
Narcoliterature refers to textual representations of the cultural and social consequences associated with drug trafficking in Latin America. This genre commonly includes journalistic and fictional depictions of violence and crime. Items in this dataset mostly come from the national literatures of Mexico and Colombia, but texts from other geographical locations also fall within this category. Notable examples of this genre include La virgen de los sicarios (Our Lady of the Assassins, 1994) by Fernando Vallejo (Colombia, 1942- ), Trabajos del reino (Kingdom Cons, 2004) by Yuri Herrera (Mexico, 1970-), La Santa Muerte (Lady of Holy Death, 2004) by Homero Aridjis (Mexico, 1940-). Among the books consulted are Oscar Osorio, El narcotráfico en la novela colombiana. Oswaldo Zavala, “Imagining the U.S.-Mexico Drug War: The Critical Limits of Narconarratives.” See also the entry “Literatura del narco” in Wikipedia. Unfortunately, this genre, like the novel of the Mexican Revolution, is not well-represented in the HathiTrust collection (See Table 1). One possible reason for this is that many of these works are contemporary titles published by small, local presses. Of the 104 novels included in the set, only 49 were found, or 47%.
| Dataset | # of titles searched | # of titles found in HT | Coverage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Modernismo | 531 | 366 | 69% |
| Mexican Revolution | 139 | 68 | 48% |
| Indigenismo | 102 | 84 | 82% |
| “La violencia” | 92 | 80 | 86% |
| Boom narrative | 65 | 65 | 100% |
| Narcoliterature | 104 | 49 | 47% |
Table 1: Coverage of Lating American genres in HathiTrust
This is a catch-all group of novels published in different countries in Spanish America. They do not include the works found in the previous six categories.3 Some of them might fall into other groups important for Spanish American literary history (e.g. “novela de la tierra”), but they are unlabeled. The final objective was to present a list of all the Spanish American novels available to researchers in the HathiTrust library and classify them by country of origin. This is obviously the largest dataset and one that ideally could be expanded as new fiction volumes are frequently added to the library. While relying on it to judge how much Spanish American fiction the HathiTrust library contains is unwise, I feel that it is a good starting point for this type of investigation. The creation of bibliographies focused on national literary production was considered a valued contribution to the field of Spanish American letters for most of the 20th century. Edna Coll’s impressive Índice informativo de la novela hispanoamericana. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Editorial Universitaria, 1974, possesses fice volumes and tries to record all fiction published in Bolivia, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Peru, Puerto Rico, Venezuela and several Central American countries. Other scholars undertook similar projects for other countries in the region. Alba María Paz Soldán. “Índice de la novela boliviana (1931-1978),” Cedomil Goic published “Bibliografía de la novela chilena del siglo XX” in 1962. The construction of this set benefitted greatly from these herculean projects, but these bibliographies rarely include information about new publications after the 1970s. An exception is Myron I. Lichtblau’s The Argentine Novel. An Annotated Bibliography, from 1997, which is impressive not only because of its author’s detailed entries about each one of the novels recorded, but also because as recently as 2002 a supplement was added. Another exception, for different reasons, is Mexico. Because of its strong internet presence, bibliography about Mexican novels is the most updated one in this dataset, including information about fiction published in the last two decades. Websites like “Enciclopedia de la literatura en Mexico” (www.elem.net) possess up-to-date information about recent publications in that country. For other countries in the region, however, the “Unsorted Set” only gives us an accurate view of HathiTrust holdings from the late 19th century to the 1960s and 1970s.
The main purpose of this project is to encourage the use of quantitative methods for the study of Spanish American literature. We have a vibrant community of scholars in the US and in Latin America who are working with cultural data in Spanish or about Spanish American countries in a wide variety of fields. The Spanish version of The Programming Historian project (https://programminghistorian.org/es/) has created dozens of lessons (some translated, others originally created in Spanish) available to scholars around the globe. “Spanish issues” of DH journals (http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/12/1/index.html) and journals exclusively devoted to digital humanities in Spanish (http://revistas.uned.es/index.php/RHD/index) have brought attention to this field and provided appropriate publication outlets for research in Spanish. However, Spanish American literature remains understudied with quantitative approaches, and one of its main obstacles is related to the time and labor required to create data focused on Spanish American literary products. I hope to make a small contribution to remedy this situation with the creation of worksets that could be attractive to scholars working in this area because they are built around topics that are usually studied in graduate programs, or because they focus on the production related to a specific genre, country or geographical area.
The worksets I have selected for this project focus on traditional periods or styles in the study of Spanish American literature. They are the type of classifications that one would find in The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature, for example, or in the Spanish American section of a reading list for a M.A. qualifying examination. My selection is a reflection of how scholars have labeled these novels. Critics obviously disagree about which books should be included in these groups, so I aimed at including any title that was mentioned as belonging to a style, even if some inclusions could be considered controversial. My selections are also limited by the volumes available in HathiTrust, a situation discussed below.
As seen in the descriptions of the datasets above, in addition to the groups or styles traditionally studied in Spanish American literary history, I have a larger dataset, titled “Unsorted Fiction,” which aims to include as much fiction as possible, from different countries and dates, without regard for author’s gender, country of origin or topics covered. Because there is not an automatic mechanism for locating fiction, my process, as explained below, depended on printed or online information already available about the literatures I was trying to find. As a result of several factors, I have access to more information about publications in a country like Mexico than in, for example, Ecuador or Paraguay. Among many factors shaping this workset, I am working from within the U.S. academic system, where departments of Hispanic studies, for complex historical and scholarly reasons, have focused on particular literatures from the Spanish American region more than others. Furthermore, a strong Internet presence also affects the availability of data about a country’s literary system. Finally, the situation of each country’s literary system directly bears on the quantities of publications coming from that market.
The process of finding these volumes required creating lists of books relevant to the project and searching for them in the catalog. The search was done algorithmically by Boris Capitanu, Senior Research Developer at the HathiTrust Research Center The automated search was followed by a manual search of all volumes not found. Identifying the titles for the lists used for each one of the genres or categories, or, in the case of the unsorted set, creating a list of as many novels as possible from all Spanish-speaking countries, required consulting online websites and catalogs, histories of literatures, articles and books focusing on different aspects of literature of this region, and manually copying titles from books about regional and local publishing history. For each one of the datasets described in this document, I have mentioned some of the most important resources that guided me in the creation of the lists. At the end of this introduction, there is a bibliography to assist the reader in finding those and other references employed. Given the task of collecting thousands of fiction titles from different national traditions and utilizing multiple online and printed sources, the “Unsorted dataset” might contain errors. For example, some of the volumes might not be novels but collections of short stories or non-fiction prose.
One problem specific to this project was the need to avoid multi-work volumes. Some of the texts that we needed for our worksets were only available as part of an edition containing multiple works, like a volume of an author’s complete works. This required manually finding the location of the start and the end of the text, which sometimes could only be approximate depending on the type of access that copyright laws gave us to the source.
While many Spanish American books are not present in HathiTrust, for others there is more than one edition represented, and sometimes, depending on the popularity of a text, more than one version of the same edition. Scholars will have to develop their own criteria for choosing the “best” electronic version of a title. Having accurate OCR is of course important for computational text analysis, but there are other aspects to consider in choosing the “best” copy or edition for one’s research. For example, certain parts of the text, such as prefaces and introductions, need to be excluded, which can lead to choosing early editions, with few elements extraneous to the main text, over scholarly editions.
These worksets can be used to address questions of canonicity and representativeness. One of the main concerns of literary historians has always been determining the qualities or circumstances that make a work eligible for inclusion in a literary classification. In other words, these sets can be used to find evidence for determining whether a work belongs to a specific period or genre. While I depended on literary histories and criticism to place these works in groups, scholars may want to challenge those classifications or choose to expand the canon for a particular genre. One could also argue that some of these works belong to more than one of these groups and in that case the challenge consists in developing a methodology to study their juxtaposition. Researchers may also wish to compare and contrast worksets, especially if there are interesting extra-literary connections among them. While three of these sets seem to take into consideration “social violence” as an essential characteristic (the Novel of the Mexican Revolution, The Colombian “Violencia” genre, and the Narcoliterature), these and other sets could support other inferences about the social environment that produced this literature. Finally, the worksets could be used to construct other lists, utilizing other criteria, such as works that have received literary prizes, are frequently included in course syllabi, or are used for graduate studies comprehensive examinations. Other researchers could be interested in “Spanish American” genres or periods that I have not included here (e.g., the Dictator Novel, novela de la tierra, etc.), or focus on global literary genres like the detective novel, or fictional texts that follow Anglo-European writing trends, such as naturalism, the avant-garde, or postmodernism.
While rights status of Hathitrust volumes often requires converting the full-text of a workinto a non-consumptive bag-of-words model (retaining words and their frequencies but disregarding original word order and location), this approach continues to yield significant results for computational studies of culture. There are already a significant number of studies that could serve as precedents for Hispanic studies scholars seeking to use a DH approach to literature. A quick glance at the contrast between texts and writers who have received inordinate amounts of attention versus what one could call, paraphrasing Franco Moretti,4 the “great Spanish American unread,” suggests, among other projects, the possibility of studying similarities among canonical works, contrasting the distinctive character of their literary language with those works that are almost unknown, even to specialists in the field.
Coll, Edna. Índice informativo de la novela hispanoamericana. Vols 1-5. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Editorial Universitaria, 1974.
“Enciclopedia de la literatura en Mexico.” (http://www.elem.net)
Escobar Mesa, Augusto. “Cronología y bibliografia de la novelística sobre la Violencia (1949-1967)” in Ensayos y aproximaciones a la otra literatura colombiana. Santafé de Bogotá: Fundación Universidad Central, 1997. pp. 332-338.
Goic, Cedomil. “Bibliografía de la novela chilena del siglo XX.” Boletín de Filología de la Universidad de Chile. No. 14 (1962). pp. 51-168.
González, Aníbal. A Companion to Spanish American Modernismo. Woodbrige: Tamesis. 2007.
González Echevarría, Roberto and Enrique Pupo-Walker. The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Lichtblau, Myron I. The Argentine Novel. An Annotated Bibliography, Scarecrow Press, 1997.
“Literatura del narco” in (https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_del_narco)
Mejías-López, Alejandro, “La novela modernista hispanoamericana: definición y estudio de sus inicios.” The University of Michigan, 1995.
Meléndez,Concha. La novela indianista en Hispanoamérica (1832-1889), Río Piedras, 1961. Universidad de Puerto Rico.
Mena, Lucila Inés. “Bibliografía Anotada Sobre el Ciclo de la Violencia en la Literatura Colombiana.” Latin American Research Review, 13, 3, 1978, 95-107.
Mesa, Augusto Escobar. “Cronología y bibliografia de la novelística sobre la Violencia (1949-1967)”, Ensayos y aproximaciones a la otra literatura colombiana. Santafé de Bogotá: Fundación Universidad Central, 1997. pp. 332-338.
Osorio, Oscar. El narcotráfico en la novela colombiana. Cali : Programa Editorial Universidad del Valle, 2014.
Paz Soldán, Alba María. “Indice de la novela boliviana (1931-1978).” Revista Iberoamericana. Vol. LII, Núm. 134, Enero-Marzo 1986.
Pineda Botero, Álvaro, Sandra Isabel Pérez, María Del Carmen Rosero, María Graciela Calle. “Bibliografía De La Novela Colombiana.” Departamento de Humanidades. Grupo de Estudios Culturales. La Novela Colombiana Contemporánea. Universidad Eafit, 2003.
Pope, Randolph D. “The Spanish American novel from 1950 to 1975.” The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature, vol 2, Edited by Roberto González Echevarría and Enrique Pupo-Walker, Cambridge UP, 1996, 226-78.
Prieto, René. “The literature of Indigenismo.” The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature, vol 2, Edited by Roberto González Echevarría and Enrique Pupo-Walker, Cambridge UP, 1996, 138-163.
Rama, Ángel. “El boom en perspectiva.” La novela latinoamericana. Panoramas 1920-1980. Bogotá: Colcultura, 1982, pp. 235–293.
Rodríguez-Luis, Julio. Hermenéutica y praxis del indigenismo: de Clorinda Matto a José María Arguedas. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1980.
Rutheford, John. An annotated bibliography of the novels of the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1917. Truy, Whitston, 1972.
Torres de la Rosa, Jaén Danaé. Avatares editoriales de un “género”: tres décadas de la novela de la revolución mexicana. Mexico: Bonilla Artigas, 2016.
Zavala, Oswald. “Imagining the U.S.-Mexico Drug War: The Critical Lim its of Narconarratives.” Comparative Literature, Summer 2014, Vol. 66, No. 3, pp. 340- 360.
“HathiTrust Languages.” https://www.hathitrust.org/visualizations_languages. ↩
See Ted Underwood, “The Life-Cycle of Genres.” Journal of Cultural Analytics 1 (2016). https://doi.org/10.22148/16.005 and Distant Horizons: Digital Evidence and Literary Change. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2019. Calvo’s impressive study focuses on more encompassing labels such as novel of adventures, philosophical novel, and so on. Scholars do not use these terms to describe or group texts produced in the Spanish American region. See José Calvo Tello, The Novel in the Spanish Silver Age. A Digital Analysis of Genre Using Machine Learning. Bielefeld University Press, 2021. https://doi.org/10.14361/9783839459256 ↩
Of course, there is always the possibility that someone might consider that some of the works in this set belong in any of the other six categories described in this introduction. ↩
Moretti, Franco. “The Slautherhouse of Literature.” MLQ, 61.1 (2000), 225. ↩